Qing Dynasty — Chinese Qaghan

First Qing emperor to rule all of China; his court maintained direct relations with the Khalkh Mongolian nobles whose predecessors are documented in the existing Khalkh Mongolia section of this site; the Qing–Mongolian relationship was one of the dynasty's foundational political relationships, built on Manchu–Mongol intermarriage alliances that predated the conquest of China

Defeated the Dzungar Mongol leader Galdan at the Battles of Ulan Butung (1690) and Jao Modo (1696), securing Outer Mongolia as a Qing dependency; Mongolian sources from his reign document the use of Khagan-derived honorifics for the Qing emperor in Buddhist Mongolian texts; Kangxi was the first Qing emperor to conduct major military campaigns personally on the Mongolian steppe, performing the role of supreme Qaghan in the most traditional sense

Consolidated Qing administrative control over Inner and Outer Mongolia; his reign saw the formalization of the Qing Banner system among Mongolian nobles, integrating the Mongolian aristocracy into the Qing imperial structure while preserving their titular dignity; Mongolian Buddhist institutions under his patronage continued to use the Khagan title in ritual addresses to the emperor

The Qing emperor most directly relevant to this site's content; his campaigns against the Dzungar Khaganate (1755–1758) extinguished the last independent Mongolian state, bringing the Dzungar people and their territory under Qing rule; the annihilation of the Dzungars — described by some historians as a genocide — was the final act of the Mongolian steppe succession that this site documents; Qianlong was addressed as Khagan in official correspondence from Central Asian Muslim rulers and in Mongolian Buddhist texts; his multilingual imperial seals included Mongolian, Manchu, Chinese, Tibetan, and Arabic inscriptions

Maintained Qing authority over Mongolia and Xinjiang during a period of growing internal instability; Turkic Muslim sources from Xinjiang (Uyghur and Kazakh documents) continue to use Khagan-derived honorifics for his imperial title in this period

His reign saw the first serious challenges to Qing Inner Asian authority; the Khanate of Kokand in Central Asia — which had long acknowledged Qing suzerainty — increasingly acted independently; nevertheless, official Kokand correspondence to the Qing court continued to use Khaqan-i Chin as the emperor's honorific

Ruled during the Taiping Rebellion and the Second Opium War; the practical authority of the Qing emperor over the steppe was significantly reduced but Mongolian Buddhist institutions maintained ritual use of the Khagan title in addresses to the throne throughout his reign

Child emperor whose regency period saw the continuation of Qing nominal authority over Outer Mongolia; the Mongolian aristocracy maintained their banner system and continued to address the Qing throne with traditional honorifics including Khagan-derived titles

His reign saw the Qing attempt to reform its Inner Asian administration through the New Policy (Xinzheng) reforms, which threatened Mongolian noble privileges and fueled the independence sentiment that would result in the 1911 Mongolian revolution; Outer Mongolian sources from his reign show the Khagan title increasingly used in contrast to Qing authority rather than in endorsement of it

Last Qing emperor; the dynasty's fall in the 1911 Revolution directly triggered the Mongolian Declaration of Independence of December 1911, in which the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu was proclaimed Bogd Khan — the event that opens the Khalkh Mongolia section of this site; Puyi's abdication ended the Qing claim to be 'Chinese Qaghan' and severed the last institutional link between the Chinese imperial state and the Mongolian steppe tradition